Oration and rhetoric were among the highest arts of ancient Greece and Rome. Then, as now, it is vital for the Renaissance Man to have the ability to influence people, emotionally or politically, through one’s communication rather than actions.
Probably the first goal would be to reflect on the types of connections you are trying to develop. While it’s good to have some ready-made facts at your disposal to create conversations, these tools only work at a superficial level of communication. People with a more intricate or deep level of connection with you will require different tools. Elocution, for example, becomes more important professionally, while word play and trivia can be more socially useful.
Many shy people believe they need to ‘say what is on’ their mind. I don’t agree with that, generally. Saying what you are thinking implies a sort of “presentism” or a bias toward the given moment, which might change quickly. Secondly, often our thoughts aren’t socially acceptable, or may be awkward and disorganized. Discretion usually reduces misunderstanding and insult. Far better to learn how to make a point or barring that allude to a point than to run roughshod over others while still being ‘shy’. The worst outcome would probably be the most probably; the listeners start disagreeing with (or retort stronger to) the shy person, who then crumbles.
Mitigated speech is becoming a bigger topic as of late. Malcolm Gladwell's new book "Outliers" is bringing light on the concept. Mitigated speech is when people weakened their point or don't make it at all. This is usually done out of respect and draws on cultural and gender mores. East Asians and women, for example, tend to say things more indirectly. This is can be nice when discussing politics or biscuits, but fails when trying to land commercial jets, as Karl E. Weick notes in (and Gladwell takes from quite liberally) "Making Sense of the Organization". It's in Google Books.
Then again, better to make a point in a respectful and weak manner than not make it at all. In my time in Japan, often conversations exist solely for the listener to figure out what the speaker is trying to say. ("The project is under budget" may mean, when said to a boss, "Can I have tomorrow off?” or “Can I have a raise?” or even “Congratulations!”)
For people who have difficulty saying anything for fear of recrimination, perhaps the best practice might be to find more subtle (read: ambiguous) ways to state an opinion and note the listener's response, and go from there.
Tuesday, December 16, 2008
Tuesday, October 14, 2008
Moderation or extremism?
As people gain wisdom, they often struggle with right vs. wrong. In my case, I’ve tended to see more of the gray in life and less of the black and white of issues, whether personal or political (is there really a difference?), and usually this leads to a moderation, a tending toward the middle. Often this is because the extremes of pretty much everything are excessively harmful in some manner. We often meet people with differing opinions and views, and by talking to them one can see another way. Sometimes this leads to what I call issue transcendence, but that is another topic.
But one need not become a fuddling moderate Demographic Average for the world to ignore (never make the papers) or focus on (Joe Average’s vote is the most important in any election). Sometimes the “right” thing to do, the “right” opinion to have, the “right” action to take isn’t easy, common, or normal. Sometimes people must stand up and point to the naked emperor. Sometimes standing up is uncomfortable, inconvenient, and lonely. Most people run far away from the charge.
Worse, people with a need to strike edgy poses adopt a culturally correct version of a politically incorrect opinion. For example, Gilette casts its women’s disposable razors with pink plastic, but for marketing to the rugged individualist American Male, it casts the razors in blue or, for the ultra-testosterone-fueled, black. Even sacred American institutions like motorcycling are a bit silly. How exactly does “weak or non-existent muffler” equate with masculinity? Real, true political incorrectness is so uncomfortable that the media (and most of your friends) run and hide when the real stuff comes out. Sad, really, that these metabehaviors are taking the place of real ideas, dialogues, and actions.
In my own life, I have encountered, with much regret initially, areas in my own life where I felt I was being inauthentic. Example abound, but perhaps the easiest to describe is people’s response to the Iraq War. Most people at this point are against the war (no one was against it more quickly than the paleoconservatives, I might add) but they continue to reap benefits such as cheap oil and do little if anything to actively reduce the continuance of said conflict, most of which is due to the region’s ‘strategic importance’ which is a euphemism for being home to the largest oil reserves on the planet, and being in proximity to America’s close ally, Israel. But, if one is against the war, what does that mean other than voicing empty unheard opinions? What more active, and perhaps more painful, ways can people do something to reduce our need for this war? Most people do incredibly little. SUV sales are dropping because gas prices went up, not because of some sort of war protest. If the war continues, and oil prices drop, I guarantee the big cars and trucks will come back. If oil prices rise, people will buy smaller cars. This has nothing to do with the war and the American soldiers we’re told to care about. This has to do with our wallets.
So, to reduce my own oil consumption, I gave up hot water. Totally. Cold showers, cold water in the sink, cold water to dry dishes. (I have no car and can’t control my thermostat.) It’s not much, but it’s one person doing something except chatting over tea.
All this is to buttress the point that moderation and extremism should be a consequence of knowledge, wisdom, and experience, not the other way around. If you believe something, if you can’t reject a behavior, strike out and adopt it even if you risk ostracism. Far easier said than done.
But one need not become a fuddling moderate Demographic Average for the world to ignore (never make the papers) or focus on (Joe Average’s vote is the most important in any election). Sometimes the “right” thing to do, the “right” opinion to have, the “right” action to take isn’t easy, common, or normal. Sometimes people must stand up and point to the naked emperor. Sometimes standing up is uncomfortable, inconvenient, and lonely. Most people run far away from the charge.
Worse, people with a need to strike edgy poses adopt a culturally correct version of a politically incorrect opinion. For example, Gilette casts its women’s disposable razors with pink plastic, but for marketing to the rugged individualist American Male, it casts the razors in blue or, for the ultra-testosterone-fueled, black. Even sacred American institutions like motorcycling are a bit silly. How exactly does “weak or non-existent muffler” equate with masculinity? Real, true political incorrectness is so uncomfortable that the media (and most of your friends) run and hide when the real stuff comes out. Sad, really, that these metabehaviors are taking the place of real ideas, dialogues, and actions.
In my own life, I have encountered, with much regret initially, areas in my own life where I felt I was being inauthentic. Example abound, but perhaps the easiest to describe is people’s response to the Iraq War. Most people at this point are against the war (no one was against it more quickly than the paleoconservatives, I might add) but they continue to reap benefits such as cheap oil and do little if anything to actively reduce the continuance of said conflict, most of which is due to the region’s ‘strategic importance’ which is a euphemism for being home to the largest oil reserves on the planet, and being in proximity to America’s close ally, Israel. But, if one is against the war, what does that mean other than voicing empty unheard opinions? What more active, and perhaps more painful, ways can people do something to reduce our need for this war? Most people do incredibly little. SUV sales are dropping because gas prices went up, not because of some sort of war protest. If the war continues, and oil prices drop, I guarantee the big cars and trucks will come back. If oil prices rise, people will buy smaller cars. This has nothing to do with the war and the American soldiers we’re told to care about. This has to do with our wallets.
So, to reduce my own oil consumption, I gave up hot water. Totally. Cold showers, cold water in the sink, cold water to dry dishes. (I have no car and can’t control my thermostat.) It’s not much, but it’s one person doing something except chatting over tea.
All this is to buttress the point that moderation and extremism should be a consequence of knowledge, wisdom, and experience, not the other way around. If you believe something, if you can’t reject a behavior, strike out and adopt it even if you risk ostracism. Far easier said than done.
Friday, July 18, 2008
Good, Fast or Cheap – Pick Two
Organizations need a mission. It took a long time for enlightened leaders and corporate managers to see that, but nowadays every success story in the business world mentioned a single-minded multi-bodied group “toiling upward in the night” (as Longfellow called it) until the project was completed.
Problem is, we’re all doing that now. It’s expected that folks are in the zone for most of the waking hours. We’ve hit “peak work” and simply working harder isn’t enough. If anything, it’s time to stop working and (gasp) think. Gone are the days where burning midnight oil is ALL it takes (although it helps a lot).
Say you want to design and build a car. What type of do you want to build? The Ford Model T, whose price tag enabled America to get to work relatively cheaply and reliably? Or the Maserati GranTurismo, which will get you there much, much more quickly, and in more style, but at a cost of $150,000? Or how about a Volkswagen Beetle, which went from idea (it was Hitler’s) to rolled out (by Ferdinand Porsche) in roughly 4 years?
Developing a successful car requires a well-considered plan, and that plan requires a clearly understood (and communicated!) mission.
In whatever your life’s pursuits, personal and professional, consider whether you want it to be good, done quickly, and done cheaply. If you can get two out of the three, you're in good shape.
Problem is, we’re all doing that now. It’s expected that folks are in the zone for most of the waking hours. We’ve hit “peak work” and simply working harder isn’t enough. If anything, it’s time to stop working and (gasp) think. Gone are the days where burning midnight oil is ALL it takes (although it helps a lot).
Say you want to design and build a car. What type of do you want to build? The Ford Model T, whose price tag enabled America to get to work relatively cheaply and reliably? Or the Maserati GranTurismo, which will get you there much, much more quickly, and in more style, but at a cost of $150,000? Or how about a Volkswagen Beetle, which went from idea (it was Hitler’s) to rolled out (by Ferdinand Porsche) in roughly 4 years?
Developing a successful car requires a well-considered plan, and that plan requires a clearly understood (and communicated!) mission.
In whatever your life’s pursuits, personal and professional, consider whether you want it to be good, done quickly, and done cheaply. If you can get two out of the three, you're in good shape.
Wednesday, July 2, 2008
Are veteran teachers more effective?
In New York City, as of 2008, teachers with 10 years' experience earn approximately 50% more than their brand-new colleagues. We assume this is because they are more effective at delivering to their students a superior education, as measured by improved abilities at reading and math, the two most important subjects in education. Importantly, this relationship should be clear even within similar demographics of students.
In this post I'd like to examine the effect that teacher experience has on students’ academic achievement in Mathematics and Reading in New York City public schools in District 85. Academic achievement should be measured by increases in standardized test scores in comparison with those of similar grades. This would control for the increase of test scores due merely to another year’s educational experience.
Teacher’s Experience is generally being defined as the number of complete years that a teacher has taught in a classroom setting at the applicable grade level, or one grade level higher or lower. However, there is typically some variance in the definition; however nonetheless the initial hypothesis should remain valid.
Teacher Efficacy would be measured via test scores in Reading and Math.
One would assume that there is a positive correlation between the years of teaching experience of the classroom teacher and the test score improvements of his or her students in the elementary schools in District 85 of New York City Public Schools. There are a number of confounding factors that would need to be controlled for, but positive correlation is nonetheless expected, particularly for the first five years of a teacher’s career. The correlation is expected to grow weaker as the teacher experience variable increases. Thus diminishing incremental or marginal returns from increases in teacher experience is expected. Additionally, Teacher Efficacy is being measured, in order to determine, if the hypothesis is supported by the study, whether Teacher Efficacy is positively correlated to teacher experience, and then
Research seems to provide compelling evidence that there is generally a positive correlation between teacher experience and academic achievement. Betts (1999), Grobler (2001), and Zuelke (2001) all found significantly positive benefit to teacher experience.
However, other studies have found little or no correlation between teacher experience and students’ academic achievement. Mulholland (1992) found there was a negative correlation between years of teacher experience and estimation of student achievement, which is an important component to student success. Although this correlation was not statistically significant, the fact that it was negative is still surprising. Herman (2001) found that teacher experience was “largely unrelated to student’s motivation to learn and class achievement.”
Betts (1999) conducted a study of over 5,000 undergraduates at University of California, San Diego, examining their high school characteristics and other data to statistically explain the factors that affect their Grade Point Average. Betts looked at two year’s worth of data from the university and combined it with data for California high schools, and used statistic techniques to develop the correlations among the variables.
Betts (1999) found a strong statistically significant correlation between average teacher experience and the student’s grade point average (GPA) in college. In fact according to the study, teacher experience was more significant than variables such as teacher’s highest degree and teacher/pupil ratio. This study may not be as relevant as necessary because there are a number of factors that differ between college level teaching and elementary school teaching. Betts voices an important concern, that in fact the causal arrows may be reversed, and that students with high GPAs (i.e., those from affluent areas, more academically motivated, or merely more intelligent) will attract more senior teachers, for a variety of reasons, including higher salary, better working conditions, etc.
“However, we did find a positive and significant link between teacher experience and the student’s GPA. We expressed concerns that this apparent relationship might reflect selection of teachers with seniority into job vacancies in the schools with the best prepared students, which are typically in more affluent areas. But two sets of robustness tests suggest that this sore of reverse causation in not at work.” (Betts 1999)
Mulholland (1992) examined 42 pairs of experienced and novice teachers and asked them to predict their pupils’ scores on reading and math tests. Teacher experience was used as a variable to measure the accuracy with which teachers can estimate students’ academic achievement.
Here surprisingly there was a negative correlation between years of teacher experience and estimation of student achievement. Although this correlation was not statistically significant, the fact that it was negative is still surprising, since estimation of a student’s future achievement is paramount in developing a relevant and applicable plan of study for the students.
Harris (2000) is an interesting survey that outlines a number of initiatives that may foster school improvement. Here we see that many of the benefits that experienced teachers enjoy, such as developing lessons, exercises and even curricula, are being ignored by larger programs that are highly prescriptive:
“The most effective school improvement programmes are characterized by the fact that they have instructional strategies that are highly prescriptive in the mode of delivery.” (Harris 2000).
This distinction is important because it will make the results of the inquiry more difficult to see. Since these new programs have been put into place, there is far less benefit to gaining experience with either more traditional teacher directed lessons and curricula, or even with other programs.
Grobler (2001) studied a random sample of black students in Grade 9 classes in South Africa, in order to find predictors of mathematics achievement. In total there were 174 students, 69 boys and 105 girls. Many variables were measured, including self-esteem (using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale), raw scores on standardized tests, a socio-economic status questionnaire, teacher’s training, and of course experience. A standard multiple regression was then performed on each of the 14 variables. In this study Grobler (2001) found significant correlation between teacher’s experience and academic achievement for girl students, by not for boys. Interestingly, a Teaching Certificate had a greater positive impact on teaching success than having a full Degree in Education.
Zuelke (2001) conducted a study examining 257 6th grade students in suburban Chicago, to see which variables contributed most to students’ academic achievement, including teacher experience in grades 4 to 6. In other words, the authors wanted to only examine relevant teaching experience, and therefore only counted years of experience in similar grades. The study used multiple linear regression on the 122 variables collected. Their findings were clear: teaching experience was ranked second in importance in test score improvement. The most important indicator was of course the students’ pretest score.
In conclusion, there may be good reason that it has been difficult finding relevant research on what I initially believed to be a rather simple topic. There are a number of factors that would grossly distort any findings. More journal articles on the subject need to be located, or more research needs to be done.
If the results of the study support the original hypothesis that teaching experience has a positive impact on students’ academic achievement in Elementary Schools in District 85, there would be implications for teachers and administrators to examine the reasons for this phenomenon, despite the rigid teaching curricula and the highly prescriptive nature of the curriculum in District 85. The implication for this result would essentially be the reinforcement that teaching experience is an excellent indicator of a teacher’s ability and efficacy. It would be difficult to extract from this study a useful measure of the extent to which the experienced teachers are superior to the novice teachers, which would be an excellent extension of this study, and would provide a useful tool for administrators to determine the benefits of employing experienced teachers versus other methods for increasing student success, such as reducing class size. From an instructional perspective, if this hypothesis proves supported by the study, mentoring and co-teaching may be effective ways to increase teacher productivity.
However, ff the results of the study fail to support the original hypothesis, there would be implications for more experienced teachers to examine other, less prescriptive, methods of teaching mathematics and literacy. Another major implication would be for administrators to question whether hiring experienced teachers is the most efficient use of funding.
The inclusion of Teacher Efficacy, as discussed before, is a method of finding investigating which factors specifically may account for any found difference in student achievement between the two Groups. While most literature concludes that Teacher Efficacy is positively correlated with Teacher Experience, this study does not assume this but rather includes this variable as an independent variable. If Teacher Efficacy is found to be positively correlated with Teacher Experience, this would imply that at least one of the factors that lead toward better teaching ability has been found and to some degree quantified. If Teacher Efficacy is found to be negatively correlated with Teacher Experience, this would imply that there must be other more important factor that would cause experienced teachers to improve student academic achievement over the less experienced teachers.
Further research could be done on further dividing teacher experience into more “buckets”, and extending the scope of the study to include brand new teachers and teachers with as much as 30 year’s experience.
It is important to mention the limitations of the study, especially with regard to the schools in which this study was performed. There are three factors in particular that limit the applicability of this study:
1) Location: As mentioned previously, the schools in this study are located in areas with high crime, a large proportion of minorities and ELL students, and relative poverty.
2) The prescriptive nature of the measuring tests: As noted earlier, SFA and Trailblazers are highly prescriptive, and there is little ability to vary the lessons. This obviously penalizes experienced teacher who have found alternative methods of assessment and instruction.
3) The non diverse nature of the assessment: There were essentially only two methods of assessment in this study, and therefore there may be a risk that the results lack some level of validity.
In the future, other researchers may want to improve upon this study by introducing other, more subjective variables to better examine more precisely the components of “teacher experience” that improve student achievement. Also, it would be valuable to understand what would happen if this study were to be adapted and conducted in other more wealthy Districts throughout New York City, even those that do not use SFA or Trailblazers, or in other cities with a similar population and demographic profiles.
The results of this study appear to confirm the results that were found in Betts (1999), Grobler (2001), and Zuelke (2001), which all found a positive correlation between teacher experience and academic achievement. This study contradicts the results found in Mulholland (1992), where there was a negative (albeit not statistically significant) correlation between a teacher’s years of experience and his or her ability to estimate student achievement.
In this post I'd like to examine the effect that teacher experience has on students’ academic achievement in Mathematics and Reading in New York City public schools in District 85. Academic achievement should be measured by increases in standardized test scores in comparison with those of similar grades. This would control for the increase of test scores due merely to another year’s educational experience.
Teacher’s Experience is generally being defined as the number of complete years that a teacher has taught in a classroom setting at the applicable grade level, or one grade level higher or lower. However, there is typically some variance in the definition; however nonetheless the initial hypothesis should remain valid.
Teacher Efficacy would be measured via test scores in Reading and Math.
One would assume that there is a positive correlation between the years of teaching experience of the classroom teacher and the test score improvements of his or her students in the elementary schools in District 85 of New York City Public Schools. There are a number of confounding factors that would need to be controlled for, but positive correlation is nonetheless expected, particularly for the first five years of a teacher’s career. The correlation is expected to grow weaker as the teacher experience variable increases. Thus diminishing incremental or marginal returns from increases in teacher experience is expected. Additionally, Teacher Efficacy is being measured, in order to determine, if the hypothesis is supported by the study, whether Teacher Efficacy is positively correlated to teacher experience, and then
Research seems to provide compelling evidence that there is generally a positive correlation between teacher experience and academic achievement. Betts (1999), Grobler (2001), and Zuelke (2001) all found significantly positive benefit to teacher experience.
However, other studies have found little or no correlation between teacher experience and students’ academic achievement. Mulholland (1992) found there was a negative correlation between years of teacher experience and estimation of student achievement, which is an important component to student success. Although this correlation was not statistically significant, the fact that it was negative is still surprising. Herman (2001) found that teacher experience was “largely unrelated to student’s motivation to learn and class achievement.”
Betts (1999) conducted a study of over 5,000 undergraduates at University of California, San Diego, examining their high school characteristics and other data to statistically explain the factors that affect their Grade Point Average. Betts looked at two year’s worth of data from the university and combined it with data for California high schools, and used statistic techniques to develop the correlations among the variables.
Betts (1999) found a strong statistically significant correlation between average teacher experience and the student’s grade point average (GPA) in college. In fact according to the study, teacher experience was more significant than variables such as teacher’s highest degree and teacher/pupil ratio. This study may not be as relevant as necessary because there are a number of factors that differ between college level teaching and elementary school teaching. Betts voices an important concern, that in fact the causal arrows may be reversed, and that students with high GPAs (i.e., those from affluent areas, more academically motivated, or merely more intelligent) will attract more senior teachers, for a variety of reasons, including higher salary, better working conditions, etc.
“However, we did find a positive and significant link between teacher experience and the student’s GPA. We expressed concerns that this apparent relationship might reflect selection of teachers with seniority into job vacancies in the schools with the best prepared students, which are typically in more affluent areas. But two sets of robustness tests suggest that this sore of reverse causation in not at work.” (Betts 1999)
Mulholland (1992) examined 42 pairs of experienced and novice teachers and asked them to predict their pupils’ scores on reading and math tests. Teacher experience was used as a variable to measure the accuracy with which teachers can estimate students’ academic achievement.
Here surprisingly there was a negative correlation between years of teacher experience and estimation of student achievement. Although this correlation was not statistically significant, the fact that it was negative is still surprising, since estimation of a student’s future achievement is paramount in developing a relevant and applicable plan of study for the students.
Harris (2000) is an interesting survey that outlines a number of initiatives that may foster school improvement. Here we see that many of the benefits that experienced teachers enjoy, such as developing lessons, exercises and even curricula, are being ignored by larger programs that are highly prescriptive:
“The most effective school improvement programmes are characterized by the fact that they have instructional strategies that are highly prescriptive in the mode of delivery.” (Harris 2000).
This distinction is important because it will make the results of the inquiry more difficult to see. Since these new programs have been put into place, there is far less benefit to gaining experience with either more traditional teacher directed lessons and curricula, or even with other programs.
Grobler (2001) studied a random sample of black students in Grade 9 classes in South Africa, in order to find predictors of mathematics achievement. In total there were 174 students, 69 boys and 105 girls. Many variables were measured, including self-esteem (using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale), raw scores on standardized tests, a socio-economic status questionnaire, teacher’s training, and of course experience. A standard multiple regression was then performed on each of the 14 variables. In this study Grobler (2001) found significant correlation between teacher’s experience and academic achievement for girl students, by not for boys. Interestingly, a Teaching Certificate had a greater positive impact on teaching success than having a full Degree in Education.
Zuelke (2001) conducted a study examining 257 6th grade students in suburban Chicago, to see which variables contributed most to students’ academic achievement, including teacher experience in grades 4 to 6. In other words, the authors wanted to only examine relevant teaching experience, and therefore only counted years of experience in similar grades. The study used multiple linear regression on the 122 variables collected. Their findings were clear: teaching experience was ranked second in importance in test score improvement. The most important indicator was of course the students’ pretest score.
In conclusion, there may be good reason that it has been difficult finding relevant research on what I initially believed to be a rather simple topic. There are a number of factors that would grossly distort any findings. More journal articles on the subject need to be located, or more research needs to be done.
If the results of the study support the original hypothesis that teaching experience has a positive impact on students’ academic achievement in Elementary Schools in District 85, there would be implications for teachers and administrators to examine the reasons for this phenomenon, despite the rigid teaching curricula and the highly prescriptive nature of the curriculum in District 85. The implication for this result would essentially be the reinforcement that teaching experience is an excellent indicator of a teacher’s ability and efficacy. It would be difficult to extract from this study a useful measure of the extent to which the experienced teachers are superior to the novice teachers, which would be an excellent extension of this study, and would provide a useful tool for administrators to determine the benefits of employing experienced teachers versus other methods for increasing student success, such as reducing class size. From an instructional perspective, if this hypothesis proves supported by the study, mentoring and co-teaching may be effective ways to increase teacher productivity.
However, ff the results of the study fail to support the original hypothesis, there would be implications for more experienced teachers to examine other, less prescriptive, methods of teaching mathematics and literacy. Another major implication would be for administrators to question whether hiring experienced teachers is the most efficient use of funding.
The inclusion of Teacher Efficacy, as discussed before, is a method of finding investigating which factors specifically may account for any found difference in student achievement between the two Groups. While most literature concludes that Teacher Efficacy is positively correlated with Teacher Experience, this study does not assume this but rather includes this variable as an independent variable. If Teacher Efficacy is found to be positively correlated with Teacher Experience, this would imply that at least one of the factors that lead toward better teaching ability has been found and to some degree quantified. If Teacher Efficacy is found to be negatively correlated with Teacher Experience, this would imply that there must be other more important factor that would cause experienced teachers to improve student academic achievement over the less experienced teachers.
Further research could be done on further dividing teacher experience into more “buckets”, and extending the scope of the study to include brand new teachers and teachers with as much as 30 year’s experience.
It is important to mention the limitations of the study, especially with regard to the schools in which this study was performed. There are three factors in particular that limit the applicability of this study:
1) Location: As mentioned previously, the schools in this study are located in areas with high crime, a large proportion of minorities and ELL students, and relative poverty.
2) The prescriptive nature of the measuring tests: As noted earlier, SFA and Trailblazers are highly prescriptive, and there is little ability to vary the lessons. This obviously penalizes experienced teacher who have found alternative methods of assessment and instruction.
3) The non diverse nature of the assessment: There were essentially only two methods of assessment in this study, and therefore there may be a risk that the results lack some level of validity.
In the future, other researchers may want to improve upon this study by introducing other, more subjective variables to better examine more precisely the components of “teacher experience” that improve student achievement. Also, it would be valuable to understand what would happen if this study were to be adapted and conducted in other more wealthy Districts throughout New York City, even those that do not use SFA or Trailblazers, or in other cities with a similar population and demographic profiles.
The results of this study appear to confirm the results that were found in Betts (1999), Grobler (2001), and Zuelke (2001), which all found a positive correlation between teacher experience and academic achievement. This study contradicts the results found in Mulholland (1992), where there was a negative (albeit not statistically significant) correlation between a teacher’s years of experience and his or her ability to estimate student achievement.
Sunday, June 29, 2008
Existentialism and Education
It often appears that Existentialism is a rather negative view of things: anguish of being, anguish of freedom, and anguish of the here and now. However, one should not see Existentialism as a religion or a “world-view”, but rather as a purposeful rejection of the constraints of categorization. One can feel disturbed, if not afraid, of the view that there really is no boundary or pattern in life from which one could derive comfort. However, Existentialism is also a view of the universe that stresses freedom, rejection of often inhibitory social structures and norms, and lastly empowers people with the right or even more so the responsibility to enhance their own human subjective self.
There is a current or an inertia toward associating with those people, objects or ideas we find familiar. This probably is an evolutionary artifact or vestige, and unbeknownst to us still remains a useful first-order rule. This tendency is the cause for many of the “-isms” that exist today, since all people tend to congregate with similar people. Despite what we say, we often yearn to be pigeon-holed and categorized. However, as people mature and become more self-sufficient they often acknowledge the self-actualization (Maslow’s term) that is possible through destroying self-limiting constraints. In this sense, there is little doubt that Existentialism’s focus on avoiding the “tyranny of the average”.
Personally, I found that I am more Existentialist than I ever thought and the concept of free will is central to my entire belief system! As a note of general reflection, perhaps each philosophy is best focused on during various points of development. E.g., clearly Existentialism isn’t the most appropriate view for a child of less than say six years old, as during these ages children are firmly Realist, with a dash of Idealism. (There isn’t enough room to expand on this idea here.)
Educationally, the central ideas of Existentialism, that of freedom, are important in carefully prescribed doses. The open classroom can work only when the children are able to tolerate the “anxiety of freedom”. It is merely the teacher’s skills that counterbalances the children’s deficit in self-control (i.e., better teachers can probably handle more open classrooms). To this end, schools should be centered around the open classroom only when it is found that the particular teacher can handle that specific situation.
The most dangerous possible outgrowth of an Existentialist learning environment is that of a dogmatic existentialist. All good teachers bring students from learning the facts and rules, to learning of opinions and exceptions, and if those people are in a group setting (which of course is a highly contradictory outcome of a completely self-based view such as Existentialism), there is the risk that the teacher will gradually tend toward getting the groups to arrive at a nice-and-neat conclusion. Any individual based philosophy must allow the individual the full freedom to “fail”, or at least to arrive at unusual conclusions.
"Take away paradox from the thinker and you have a professor." -- Søren Kierkegaard
There is a current or an inertia toward associating with those people, objects or ideas we find familiar. This probably is an evolutionary artifact or vestige, and unbeknownst to us still remains a useful first-order rule. This tendency is the cause for many of the “-isms” that exist today, since all people tend to congregate with similar people. Despite what we say, we often yearn to be pigeon-holed and categorized. However, as people mature and become more self-sufficient they often acknowledge the self-actualization (Maslow’s term) that is possible through destroying self-limiting constraints. In this sense, there is little doubt that Existentialism’s focus on avoiding the “tyranny of the average”.
Personally, I found that I am more Existentialist than I ever thought and the concept of free will is central to my entire belief system! As a note of general reflection, perhaps each philosophy is best focused on during various points of development. E.g., clearly Existentialism isn’t the most appropriate view for a child of less than say six years old, as during these ages children are firmly Realist, with a dash of Idealism. (There isn’t enough room to expand on this idea here.)
Educationally, the central ideas of Existentialism, that of freedom, are important in carefully prescribed doses. The open classroom can work only when the children are able to tolerate the “anxiety of freedom”. It is merely the teacher’s skills that counterbalances the children’s deficit in self-control (i.e., better teachers can probably handle more open classrooms). To this end, schools should be centered around the open classroom only when it is found that the particular teacher can handle that specific situation.
The most dangerous possible outgrowth of an Existentialist learning environment is that of a dogmatic existentialist. All good teachers bring students from learning the facts and rules, to learning of opinions and exceptions, and if those people are in a group setting (which of course is a highly contradictory outcome of a completely self-based view such as Existentialism), there is the risk that the teacher will gradually tend toward getting the groups to arrive at a nice-and-neat conclusion. Any individual based philosophy must allow the individual the full freedom to “fail”, or at least to arrive at unusual conclusions.
"Take away paradox from the thinker and you have a professor." -- Søren Kierkegaard
Thursday, June 26, 2008
John Dewey: Philosopher, Educator
John Dewey was a philosopher. His precise use of language, his strict and exact defining of terms, his lack of scientific analyses, and his sheer verbosity put him strictly in the “philosopher” category.
Many of Dewey’s ideas and beliefs trace back to the Pragmatism of Edmund Burke, an English philosopher in the late 18th century. Both Dewey and Burke stress resistance to the temptation of the classification of ideas into one end of the spectrum. Dewey calls this the Either-Or philosophy, while classical logic calls it the “Fallacy of the Excluded Middle.” Dewey and Burke attempt to moderate the progression of thoughts and beliefs by analyzing not just the evils of the traditional (Dewey focusing on schools; Burke focusing on the French revolution), but also the graces thereof. In this manner, Dewey takes a few hundred pages to warn readers not to throw the baby out with the bath water. (Maybe philosophers get paid by the page?)
The Either-Or philosophy that dominates the first part of the book requires comment. Clearly, Dewey is warning us against taking too radical an approach to education. It is interesting to note that this point is made by one of the key founders of Progressive Education. Most curricular decisions in modern education are not based on pragmatism or scientific research, but rather on “high-level” decisions accepted without comment. In this manner, I believe that many of Dewey’s warnings are going unheeded.
On a more ideological note, I find it interesting that Dewey’s main points, that of the Principle of Learning through Personal Experience, and that of incrementalism as discussed above, are essentially two of the very bases of conservatism. Those two thrusts are merely restatements of the same idea, but then again philosophers get paid by the page. These beliefs tend to confirm or at least imply the superiority of conservatism to the impulsive and whimsical approach to teaching strategies, administrative organizations and choices of curricula. In schools today the value of the collective wisdom of the ages is being ignored. Overall, it is interesting to juxtapose this general ideology with the heterodoxy of most of the educational industry, teachers and administrators, are typically ideologically liberal in the newer sense of the word.
Dewey’s view of the traditional school as being “autocratic, anti-democracy and harsh” also requires comment. In a sense it can be conceded that schools in general are autocratic, if not dictatorial, since by definition it is the teacher that is entrusted in teaching, if not leading, the students through carefully chosen experiences. It would be silly to have it any other way.
Since Dewey uses the term “autocratic” to describe the classroom, I assume that his use of the term “anti-democratic” would not be merely redundant, but would reflect on the belief that traditional schools hinder the success of democracy in the country, or the world. Much of his writing are from the 1930s, during a major popularity of Socialist views among the faculty in American colleges and universities. Here Dewey is flatly wrong. I have as little evidence to support my argument as Dewey has for his. I fail to see the connection between traditional learning environments and views opposed to democracy.
The harshness that Dewey saw in his views of traditional schools certainly are no longer a major problem, as now the laws on corporal punishment extend far beyond even physical contact. The pendulum has swung too far in the other direction.
Many of Dewey’s ideas and beliefs trace back to the Pragmatism of Edmund Burke, an English philosopher in the late 18th century. Both Dewey and Burke stress resistance to the temptation of the classification of ideas into one end of the spectrum. Dewey calls this the Either-Or philosophy, while classical logic calls it the “Fallacy of the Excluded Middle.” Dewey and Burke attempt to moderate the progression of thoughts and beliefs by analyzing not just the evils of the traditional (Dewey focusing on schools; Burke focusing on the French revolution), but also the graces thereof. In this manner, Dewey takes a few hundred pages to warn readers not to throw the baby out with the bath water. (Maybe philosophers get paid by the page?)
The Either-Or philosophy that dominates the first part of the book requires comment. Clearly, Dewey is warning us against taking too radical an approach to education. It is interesting to note that this point is made by one of the key founders of Progressive Education. Most curricular decisions in modern education are not based on pragmatism or scientific research, but rather on “high-level” decisions accepted without comment. In this manner, I believe that many of Dewey’s warnings are going unheeded.
On a more ideological note, I find it interesting that Dewey’s main points, that of the Principle of Learning through Personal Experience, and that of incrementalism as discussed above, are essentially two of the very bases of conservatism. Those two thrusts are merely restatements of the same idea, but then again philosophers get paid by the page. These beliefs tend to confirm or at least imply the superiority of conservatism to the impulsive and whimsical approach to teaching strategies, administrative organizations and choices of curricula. In schools today the value of the collective wisdom of the ages is being ignored. Overall, it is interesting to juxtapose this general ideology with the heterodoxy of most of the educational industry, teachers and administrators, are typically ideologically liberal in the newer sense of the word.
Dewey’s view of the traditional school as being “autocratic, anti-democracy and harsh” also requires comment. In a sense it can be conceded that schools in general are autocratic, if not dictatorial, since by definition it is the teacher that is entrusted in teaching, if not leading, the students through carefully chosen experiences. It would be silly to have it any other way.
Since Dewey uses the term “autocratic” to describe the classroom, I assume that his use of the term “anti-democratic” would not be merely redundant, but would reflect on the belief that traditional schools hinder the success of democracy in the country, or the world. Much of his writing are from the 1930s, during a major popularity of Socialist views among the faculty in American colleges and universities. Here Dewey is flatly wrong. I have as little evidence to support my argument as Dewey has for his. I fail to see the connection between traditional learning environments and views opposed to democracy.
The harshness that Dewey saw in his views of traditional schools certainly are no longer a major problem, as now the laws on corporal punishment extend far beyond even physical contact. The pendulum has swung too far in the other direction.
Utopianism, Marxism, and Totalitarianism: Synonymous in the Classroom?
I would like to address one aspect of Utopianism, Marxism and Totalitarianism.
The primary thread that I notice is that all three of these “isms” is that they are generally dead in a global sense. (There are certainly some relatively minor exceptions.) However, there is still importance in studying these philosophies, for three major reasons: (1) There are aspects to these beliefs that are ideals that we should strive for, or at least recognize, (2) in a classroom a teacher could attempt to create these types of environments (3) these philosophies may not be dead, but merely asleep.
Each of the three philosophies contains ideals for which we in the US should strive. In Utopianism, there are ideals relating to gender equality under law, universal respect and general peace that would serve us well. Marxists share the ideals of equality of sex, class and occupation.
Although it is harder to find desirable ideals in a Totalitarian regime, in some cases it may be a preferred government to other forms, such as anarchy. While it is a stretch, Hitler did unite Germany, and perhaps he could have done so without using the Jews as a scapegoat for her ills. There is some value in unification and developing a national identify of strength. There are some places in the world that are suffering from an incredibly weak and corrupt government that perhaps would benefit from some sort of benevolent dictator or monarchy.
In a classroom, a teacher has carte blanche to create the type of classroom that he or she wants. This creates some anguish of freedom, but also allows the enlightened teacher to create the best learning environment for the students. In relation to the three philosophies in this paper, I submit that each has a particular setting in which it is most appropriate. The Utopian concepts would work best if one had very motivated students, perhaps in the higher grades. The Marxist concepts would probably fare best when students were intrinsically motivated. The totalitarian approach would mesh best with problem or younger students that are not yet able to be trusted to stay focused for long periods of time.
As I stated above, it is somewhat foolhardy to assume that these philosophies are dead in any way. Utopianism, which enjoyed its heyday in the early 19th century, is even more possible today as the role of technology grows and the typical workweek has dropped dramatically since Owen’s Utopian communities. Marxism, declared deceased in the late 1980’s with the fall of Communism in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, still remains a viable type of government. Witness Venezuela. Perhaps we haven’t heard the last from Karl Marx!
Totalitarianism certainly peaked in the 1930’s and 1940’s, but actually there are still a dozen regimes (many in Africa) that are essentially totalitarian. While I generally abhor the moral relativism that pervades college campuses and other places insulated from the “real world”, I find that our best defense against these types of beliefs is to understand them and their impact on those people that have experienced them.
The primary thread that I notice is that all three of these “isms” is that they are generally dead in a global sense. (There are certainly some relatively minor exceptions.) However, there is still importance in studying these philosophies, for three major reasons: (1) There are aspects to these beliefs that are ideals that we should strive for, or at least recognize, (2) in a classroom a teacher could attempt to create these types of environments (3) these philosophies may not be dead, but merely asleep.
Each of the three philosophies contains ideals for which we in the US should strive. In Utopianism, there are ideals relating to gender equality under law, universal respect and general peace that would serve us well. Marxists share the ideals of equality of sex, class and occupation.
Although it is harder to find desirable ideals in a Totalitarian regime, in some cases it may be a preferred government to other forms, such as anarchy. While it is a stretch, Hitler did unite Germany, and perhaps he could have done so without using the Jews as a scapegoat for her ills. There is some value in unification and developing a national identify of strength. There are some places in the world that are suffering from an incredibly weak and corrupt government that perhaps would benefit from some sort of benevolent dictator or monarchy.
In a classroom, a teacher has carte blanche to create the type of classroom that he or she wants. This creates some anguish of freedom, but also allows the enlightened teacher to create the best learning environment for the students. In relation to the three philosophies in this paper, I submit that each has a particular setting in which it is most appropriate. The Utopian concepts would work best if one had very motivated students, perhaps in the higher grades. The Marxist concepts would probably fare best when students were intrinsically motivated. The totalitarian approach would mesh best with problem or younger students that are not yet able to be trusted to stay focused for long periods of time.
As I stated above, it is somewhat foolhardy to assume that these philosophies are dead in any way. Utopianism, which enjoyed its heyday in the early 19th century, is even more possible today as the role of technology grows and the typical workweek has dropped dramatically since Owen’s Utopian communities. Marxism, declared deceased in the late 1980’s with the fall of Communism in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, still remains a viable type of government. Witness Venezuela. Perhaps we haven’t heard the last from Karl Marx!
Totalitarianism certainly peaked in the 1930’s and 1940’s, but actually there are still a dozen regimes (many in Africa) that are essentially totalitarian. While I generally abhor the moral relativism that pervades college campuses and other places insulated from the “real world”, I find that our best defense against these types of beliefs is to understand them and their impact on those people that have experienced them.
How Children Learn Fractions
This post is about an important article regarding Math Education, titled “Initial Fraction Learning by Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students: A Comparison of the Effects of Using Commercial Curricula With the Effects of Using the Rational Number Project Curriculum”. The authors of the article are Kathleen A. Cramer, Thomas R. Post, and Robert C delMas, all of the graduate school of the University of Minnesota. The article was published in the Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Volume 33, No. 2, on pages 111-144.
The article’s primary focus is comparing two different approaches for the initial teaching of fractions. One method, called the Commercial Curriculum (“CC”) method, essentially is the more traditional, rote and procedure-based method. The other method is called the Rational Number Project (“RNP”), which is a newer method, relying more on “multiple physical models and translations within and between modes of representation – pictorial, manipulative, verbal, real-world, and symbolic.”
In this article the authors appear to be unbiased in their comparison of the two methods of teaching fractions. However, it is important to note that the study was partly funded by the RNP itself, and this could impact their desire to publish negative results of RNP.
The study used a sample of 66 fourth and fifth grade classrooms in a suburban school district in Minnesota. The teachers were randomly assigned to 3 groups, either the CC Group, the RNP group, or a control group. The teachers then taught their classes using either method for 30 days. The instruments to measure student achievement at the end of this period consisted of written tests and student interviews. In addition, 4 weeks after the study, teachers administered retention tests. The authors used Factor Analysis and MANOVA as statistical methods to compare results from the 3 groups.
The study found that overall the RNP Group performed significantly better than the other groups. The RNP Group outperformed the other groups both in the written tests and in the student interviews, where students were asked to discuss their thought process behind their answers, whether correct or incorrect.
The chief impact this article makes on me is the importance of using manipulatives, and more specifically a variety of manipulatives and other physical representations. The RNP method uses many exercises and lessons based on translating among these different representations. Again, this makes sense, since each type of physical representation gives a different perspective of the concept of fractions. The ability of translate freely among them would seem to enhance the overall concept, much like the old tale of the blind men and the elephant trying to figure out what they are feeling. (It is interesting to note that the total amount teaching time was lower with the RNP method than the CC method, and the article also states that teacher preparation is easier using the RNP method rather than the CC method.)
The RNP method is also aligned with the NCTM standards, which makes its teaching more defensible in terms of other state-wide standardized tests.
I recommend using the information provided in this article by showing students are variety of methods of “seeing” any mathematical concept, whether it is multiplication, fractions, or even geometric figures. Perhaps even developing worksheets that ask students to translate among the representations would be useful even if our school does not use the RNP methods.
The article’s primary focus is comparing two different approaches for the initial teaching of fractions. One method, called the Commercial Curriculum (“CC”) method, essentially is the more traditional, rote and procedure-based method. The other method is called the Rational Number Project (“RNP”), which is a newer method, relying more on “multiple physical models and translations within and between modes of representation – pictorial, manipulative, verbal, real-world, and symbolic.”
In this article the authors appear to be unbiased in their comparison of the two methods of teaching fractions. However, it is important to note that the study was partly funded by the RNP itself, and this could impact their desire to publish negative results of RNP.
The study used a sample of 66 fourth and fifth grade classrooms in a suburban school district in Minnesota. The teachers were randomly assigned to 3 groups, either the CC Group, the RNP group, or a control group. The teachers then taught their classes using either method for 30 days. The instruments to measure student achievement at the end of this period consisted of written tests and student interviews. In addition, 4 weeks after the study, teachers administered retention tests. The authors used Factor Analysis and MANOVA as statistical methods to compare results from the 3 groups.
The study found that overall the RNP Group performed significantly better than the other groups. The RNP Group outperformed the other groups both in the written tests and in the student interviews, where students were asked to discuss their thought process behind their answers, whether correct or incorrect.
The chief impact this article makes on me is the importance of using manipulatives, and more specifically a variety of manipulatives and other physical representations. The RNP method uses many exercises and lessons based on translating among these different representations. Again, this makes sense, since each type of physical representation gives a different perspective of the concept of fractions. The ability of translate freely among them would seem to enhance the overall concept, much like the old tale of the blind men and the elephant trying to figure out what they are feeling. (It is interesting to note that the total amount teaching time was lower with the RNP method than the CC method, and the article also states that teacher preparation is easier using the RNP method rather than the CC method.)
The RNP method is also aligned with the NCTM standards, which makes its teaching more defensible in terms of other state-wide standardized tests.
I recommend using the information provided in this article by showing students are variety of methods of “seeing” any mathematical concept, whether it is multiplication, fractions, or even geometric figures. Perhaps even developing worksheets that ask students to translate among the representations would be useful even if our school does not use the RNP methods.
Wednesday, June 25, 2008
How Children see Quantity
This is a review of an article titled “Young Children’s Representations of Groups of Objects: The Relationship Between Abstraction and Representation”. The authors of the article are Yasuhiko Kato, Constance Kamii, Kyoko Ozaki and Mariko Nagahiro. The article was published in the Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Volume 33, No. 1, on pages 30-45.
The article’s primary focus is comparing each subject’s level of abstraction and level of representation in mathematics. The purpose of the article seems to be to compare these two concepts and further define a child’s development in each. In the author’s words, “we decided to study more specifically the relationship between children’s construction of number through constructive abstraction and their development in representing numerical quantities.” In a sense the authors are trying to reconcile the difference in development between number sense and numerical representation.
The study used 60 Japanese children between 3 and 7 years old to determine their ability to represent quantity and their ability to understand quantity without the benefits of a picture or graphic. The authors developed two different scales, one to measure the development of representation and the other to measure the development of the ability to create mathematical abstractions.
The concept of representation was very clearly defined in the article as written symbols that either represent quantity (like 5, five, etc.) or represent operations on quantities (like +, -, etc.). The first step in the survey was to create a spectrum of types of notation to represent a group of objects, like 3 balls or 5 houses. At the first level, children can only make a mark for each of the objects (3 balls = ), and at the final level, children can write the quantity and the description (3 houses = 3 houses). The authors then compared the children’s representation scale to their ability to create mental abstractions of quantities.
In order to create a similar scale for the children’s ability to create mental abstractions of quantities, the authors created a scale, where the lowest level is the child’s inability to create a one-to-one correspondence between a graphically recreate a given group of objects (i.e., 5 given circles is drawn as 4 circles). The highest level is when a child creates a one-to-one correspondence, and additionally is able to conserve numbers (i.e., “o o o o” has the same number of o’s as “oooo”).
The study found that children cannot create abstract concepts before they are able to represent those concepts (e.g., numerical).
Thus, the information provided in this article implies assessing students’ ability to represent quantities and operations, and then assessing their ability to understand the abstract concept of quantity. This could be done by creating a variety of methods assessing whether students are “seeing” any taught mathematical concept, whether it is multiplication, fractions, or even geometric figures. This would correspond to the “abstraction” concept, and that would create a “ceiling” at the level that a child can represent a concept or quantity mathematically. It would be silly, according to the article, to expect a student to write 21 + 12 = 33, if they can’t grasp the abstract concepts of addition, and the quantity of the addends.
The article’s primary focus is comparing each subject’s level of abstraction and level of representation in mathematics. The purpose of the article seems to be to compare these two concepts and further define a child’s development in each. In the author’s words, “we decided to study more specifically the relationship between children’s construction of number through constructive abstraction and their development in representing numerical quantities.” In a sense the authors are trying to reconcile the difference in development between number sense and numerical representation.
The study used 60 Japanese children between 3 and 7 years old to determine their ability to represent quantity and their ability to understand quantity without the benefits of a picture or graphic. The authors developed two different scales, one to measure the development of representation and the other to measure the development of the ability to create mathematical abstractions.
The concept of representation was very clearly defined in the article as written symbols that either represent quantity (like 5, five, etc.) or represent operations on quantities (like +, -, etc.). The first step in the survey was to create a spectrum of types of notation to represent a group of objects, like 3 balls or 5 houses. At the first level, children can only make a mark for each of the objects (3 balls = ), and at the final level, children can write the quantity and the description (3 houses = 3 houses). The authors then compared the children’s representation scale to their ability to create mental abstractions of quantities.
In order to create a similar scale for the children’s ability to create mental abstractions of quantities, the authors created a scale, where the lowest level is the child’s inability to create a one-to-one correspondence between a graphically recreate a given group of objects (i.e., 5 given circles is drawn as 4 circles). The highest level is when a child creates a one-to-one correspondence, and additionally is able to conserve numbers (i.e., “o o o o” has the same number of o’s as “oooo”).
The study found that children cannot create abstract concepts before they are able to represent those concepts (e.g., numerical).
Thus, the information provided in this article implies assessing students’ ability to represent quantities and operations, and then assessing their ability to understand the abstract concept of quantity. This could be done by creating a variety of methods assessing whether students are “seeing” any taught mathematical concept, whether it is multiplication, fractions, or even geometric figures. This would correspond to the “abstraction” concept, and that would create a “ceiling” at the level that a child can represent a concept or quantity mathematically. It would be silly, according to the article, to expect a student to write 21 + 12 = 33, if they can’t grasp the abstract concepts of addition, and the quantity of the addends.
Tuesday, June 24, 2008
Assessment, Part I
The problem occurs daily, and it’s painful. A student looks at his grade and asks a question about it. I look at the work, and the grade, and quickly find a “rationale” for the grade. The student learns nothing along the way, gets no ability to justify or argue his case, and lastly probably sees that the grade and comments are not well thought out. Often the student walks away with confirmation that the system in general and I specifically failed her. And that hits a nerve.
The reason this problem is painful for me is that I have come to feel that many of the teachers in the SURR schools are “passing the buck” so to speak. I often hear teachers complain about (a) the students’ intellectual ability, (b) the students’ work ethic and general attitude, (c) the lack of interest of the students’ parent/guardians, (d) the administration, (e) the Board of Education, etc. “We didn’t know things would be this bad…I can’t believe all the fighting in class...no respect for authority…etc.”
I think the blame lies solely within ourselves. Why? Because there ARE teachers that can do it. They exist in my school, and most probably in others. In these classrooms, on-task children are working in groups in a quiet classroom. They are learning, and there is no screaming. The teachers I have in mind arrive at 6:45am and leave at 4:30pm every day. The work during their prep, and often their lunch. Yes, while it is painful to admit, I think the problem lies in our abilities, and it’s simply incorrect to blame others.
In some ways I think that when I grade poorly, I am cheating the children, and have completely lost my right to complain.
“I have become what I sought to replace.”
THE ACTION PLAN
As stated above, the most significant problem I face currently in the classroom is assessment. While I am able to get the students to focus and generally do their class work and homework, I would like to give them comprehensive, transparent and ultimately useful assessment. Primarily, I would like to use this assessment for the students themselves; however, I obviously need to “test” the students so that the administration can properly collect an objective collection of measures for students’ long-term history. Ideally, though, I would like to give students meaningful feedback about their work without discouraging them, or with very clear methods of improvement. Also, I would like to grade fairly and consistently across students.
My action plan will involve (1) developing clear rubrics for students and parents to use to “verify” my grading rationale, (2) provide students with clear and useful grades and comments on their work in a timely manner, so that they can use these comments to build even better understanding of the material, and provide them a time (perhaps after school) to discuss/argue any issues, and (3) develop methods for creative or poor-testing students to demonstrate their mastery of the material without compromising the assessment process.
Rubrics: I will provide students with an example of “excellent”, “average”, and “poor” work, as well as a rubric describing the grading. Student will be given these rubrics, and I will also have one posted on the wall, so that in some instances all students will know almost exactly what grade they will get before they even hand anything in. This concept also helps me, the teacher, become a more consistent grader, and I will average out the grades I give to ensure that, generally, students are graded consistently over time, rather than being dictated by my mood or subconscious.
The use of a rubric is supported by research in the text and in the handouts given in class. The following are some citations from a handout regarding the use of rubrics:
“Students become more involved in their work and more interested in their progress as they become more accountable to themselves. In addition, parents seemed better able to accept evaluation at the end of the term.” (Marchall, 1960) (This points to the fact that students should be given a clear explanation of exactly what is expected of them, I.e., a rubric.)
In another study, teachers graded the same paper with widely varying results, often as much as 25 points. And in yet another study, “180 geometry teachers, each scoring the same test paper, gave grades from 38 to 87.” A rubric would give teachers a better ability to grade fairly and consistently.
Useful Comments: I want the papers that I return to have meaningful and useful comments on them. Students should learn from those comments. Often teachers simply put smilely faces or “good job” words of encouragement on the paper, without instead providing thoughtful remarks on improvement as well. I also think that students should be given time to actually read those comments rather than stuffing them into a desk (or in the garbage, depending on the grade given).
Importantly, I would lay clear goals for the grades to be given to parents on the report card. The reasons for this are that students often don’t know exactly what goes into their final report card grade, and while this gives teachers a more mystical power, it also creates unneeded anxiety in our students. Instead, students will learn how averages work, and their grades will for the most part be a composite of the grade they achieve during the year. This also creates more accountability for the students and their parents, as the lack of clear grading puts more subjective and nebulous power into the teacher’s hands, whether or not they want it.
Providing meaningful comments has also been the subject of studies, and the following as just a few mentioned in the text and in the handouts:
“Students who had the closest relationship to the teacher achieved greater academic success than students who were not as close.” (Schmuck and Van Egmund 1965) (This shows that meaningful comments, which constitutes some relationship, can help students academically.)
In a large study student papers were given grades and either no comments, specific predetermined comments list “let’s raise that grade” or free comments which the teacher felt would be helpful. Students who received free comments …showed a significant improvement…” (Page, 1958) (This shows very clearly that there is utility in providing comments.)
Anxiety raised the grades of high ability students and lowered the grades of middle ability student.” (Phillips, 1962) (Again, here we see clearly that clarity of expectations, which would reduce anxiety, will help those that I teach.)
Alternative Testing: I will develop alternative types of tests that students can use, after they have demonstrated that the tests typically given are not best. In other words, if a student clearly doesn’t perform well on a test, rather than providing him with an alternative I would meet with parents and with previous teachers of the student to determine whether the issue is truly with the test. This is because I don’t think tests are biased in any meaningful manner, nor are they “confusing” if one really knows the material.
The tests I would develop would be based on the material, but would use more creative ways for students to demonstrate their knowledge. For example, students could write essays that would contain the same facts and explanations as a multiple choice test, without the confusing “wrong” answers included. This, to me, is fine. Lastly, some students may be able to develop even more imaginative ways to demonstrate knowledge (plays, songs, poems, etc.) However, I would try to keep this top a minimum, since this could create confusion and poor behavior management in the classroom.
Alternative testing, while potentially cumbersome, can create self-esteem in exactly those students who need it most. The following quotes from the test and the handouts show that, sometimes, the tests themselves are the problem:
Traits which describe individuals characterized as “creative” tend to be significantly different from the traits recognized in “achievers”. The grade-conscious achiever tends to be less willing to take risks, more subject to group pressures, less dominating, more persistent and has a stronger superego.” (Holland, 1960) It seems clear that the grading system, at all levels including the graduate one, tends to penalize the imaginative student who is likely to make a significant contribution to nearly any field.” (Miller, 1967) (So here we see that teachers need to address the most difficult question: What am I assessing with this test? I have no problem with children demonstrating mastery in unorthodox ways.)
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, quality feedback to students requires:
(1) Increased interest in their performance;
(2) Increased performance;
(3) Decreased arguments and bad attitudes (from students and parents) upon reading their grades and feedback; and
(4) Increased participation from students that otherwise do not exhibit interest in school in general, or a particular subject.
I would expect that these measures could be assessed and reviewed at least every marking period, as I as the teacher must justify my grades and opinions on each student to the student himself, the student’s parents, and the administration.
The reason this problem is painful for me is that I have come to feel that many of the teachers in the SURR schools are “passing the buck” so to speak. I often hear teachers complain about (a) the students’ intellectual ability, (b) the students’ work ethic and general attitude, (c) the lack of interest of the students’ parent/guardians, (d) the administration, (e) the Board of Education, etc. “We didn’t know things would be this bad…I can’t believe all the fighting in class...no respect for authority…etc.”
I think the blame lies solely within ourselves. Why? Because there ARE teachers that can do it. They exist in my school, and most probably in others. In these classrooms, on-task children are working in groups in a quiet classroom. They are learning, and there is no screaming. The teachers I have in mind arrive at 6:45am and leave at 4:30pm every day. The work during their prep, and often their lunch. Yes, while it is painful to admit, I think the problem lies in our abilities, and it’s simply incorrect to blame others.
In some ways I think that when I grade poorly, I am cheating the children, and have completely lost my right to complain.
“I have become what I sought to replace.”
THE ACTION PLAN
As stated above, the most significant problem I face currently in the classroom is assessment. While I am able to get the students to focus and generally do their class work and homework, I would like to give them comprehensive, transparent and ultimately useful assessment. Primarily, I would like to use this assessment for the students themselves; however, I obviously need to “test” the students so that the administration can properly collect an objective collection of measures for students’ long-term history. Ideally, though, I would like to give students meaningful feedback about their work without discouraging them, or with very clear methods of improvement. Also, I would like to grade fairly and consistently across students.
My action plan will involve (1) developing clear rubrics for students and parents to use to “verify” my grading rationale, (2) provide students with clear and useful grades and comments on their work in a timely manner, so that they can use these comments to build even better understanding of the material, and provide them a time (perhaps after school) to discuss/argue any issues, and (3) develop methods for creative or poor-testing students to demonstrate their mastery of the material without compromising the assessment process.
Rubrics: I will provide students with an example of “excellent”, “average”, and “poor” work, as well as a rubric describing the grading. Student will be given these rubrics, and I will also have one posted on the wall, so that in some instances all students will know almost exactly what grade they will get before they even hand anything in. This concept also helps me, the teacher, become a more consistent grader, and I will average out the grades I give to ensure that, generally, students are graded consistently over time, rather than being dictated by my mood or subconscious.
The use of a rubric is supported by research in the text and in the handouts given in class. The following are some citations from a handout regarding the use of rubrics:
“Students become more involved in their work and more interested in their progress as they become more accountable to themselves. In addition, parents seemed better able to accept evaluation at the end of the term.” (Marchall, 1960) (This points to the fact that students should be given a clear explanation of exactly what is expected of them, I.e., a rubric.)
In another study, teachers graded the same paper with widely varying results, often as much as 25 points. And in yet another study, “180 geometry teachers, each scoring the same test paper, gave grades from 38 to 87.” A rubric would give teachers a better ability to grade fairly and consistently.
Useful Comments: I want the papers that I return to have meaningful and useful comments on them. Students should learn from those comments. Often teachers simply put smilely faces or “good job” words of encouragement on the paper, without instead providing thoughtful remarks on improvement as well. I also think that students should be given time to actually read those comments rather than stuffing them into a desk (or in the garbage, depending on the grade given).
Importantly, I would lay clear goals for the grades to be given to parents on the report card. The reasons for this are that students often don’t know exactly what goes into their final report card grade, and while this gives teachers a more mystical power, it also creates unneeded anxiety in our students. Instead, students will learn how averages work, and their grades will for the most part be a composite of the grade they achieve during the year. This also creates more accountability for the students and their parents, as the lack of clear grading puts more subjective and nebulous power into the teacher’s hands, whether or not they want it.
Providing meaningful comments has also been the subject of studies, and the following as just a few mentioned in the text and in the handouts:
“Students who had the closest relationship to the teacher achieved greater academic success than students who were not as close.” (Schmuck and Van Egmund 1965) (This shows that meaningful comments, which constitutes some relationship, can help students academically.)
In a large study student papers were given grades and either no comments, specific predetermined comments list “let’s raise that grade” or free comments which the teacher felt would be helpful. Students who received free comments …showed a significant improvement…” (Page, 1958) (This shows very clearly that there is utility in providing comments.)
Anxiety raised the grades of high ability students and lowered the grades of middle ability student.” (Phillips, 1962) (Again, here we see clearly that clarity of expectations, which would reduce anxiety, will help those that I teach.)
Alternative Testing: I will develop alternative types of tests that students can use, after they have demonstrated that the tests typically given are not best. In other words, if a student clearly doesn’t perform well on a test, rather than providing him with an alternative I would meet with parents and with previous teachers of the student to determine whether the issue is truly with the test. This is because I don’t think tests are biased in any meaningful manner, nor are they “confusing” if one really knows the material.
The tests I would develop would be based on the material, but would use more creative ways for students to demonstrate their knowledge. For example, students could write essays that would contain the same facts and explanations as a multiple choice test, without the confusing “wrong” answers included. This, to me, is fine. Lastly, some students may be able to develop even more imaginative ways to demonstrate knowledge (plays, songs, poems, etc.) However, I would try to keep this top a minimum, since this could create confusion and poor behavior management in the classroom.
Alternative testing, while potentially cumbersome, can create self-esteem in exactly those students who need it most. The following quotes from the test and the handouts show that, sometimes, the tests themselves are the problem:
Traits which describe individuals characterized as “creative” tend to be significantly different from the traits recognized in “achievers”. The grade-conscious achiever tends to be less willing to take risks, more subject to group pressures, less dominating, more persistent and has a stronger superego.” (Holland, 1960) It seems clear that the grading system, at all levels including the graduate one, tends to penalize the imaginative student who is likely to make a significant contribution to nearly any field.” (Miller, 1967) (So here we see that teachers need to address the most difficult question: What am I assessing with this test? I have no problem with children demonstrating mastery in unorthodox ways.)
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, quality feedback to students requires:
(1) Increased interest in their performance;
(2) Increased performance;
(3) Decreased arguments and bad attitudes (from students and parents) upon reading their grades and feedback; and
(4) Increased participation from students that otherwise do not exhibit interest in school in general, or a particular subject.
I would expect that these measures could be assessed and reviewed at least every marking period, as I as the teacher must justify my grades and opinions on each student to the student himself, the student’s parents, and the administration.
Monday, June 23, 2008
Public Goods, Part II
Some important set questions to be asked in setting governmental policy concerning public goods and externalities are: Why do markets fail? What are the consequences of these failures, and what are possible solutions? If these can be answered accurately, our government can truly reflect our beliefs and goals by controlling the effects of externalities.
Markets fail because it is either difficult or impossible for people to receive or produce the amount of goods that would be in accord with their valuations. These goods and services are not allocated by the desires of the participants. When this occurs, consumers may desire a good, like defense against hostile countries, but are unable to afford it. But the key here is that even if one consumer were able to afford it, the market would still fail because his neighbors would receive benefits from something that they didn't pay for. No one would have an incentive to purchase nuclear arms because one's neighbors would receive positive externalities; that is, given purely self-interested individuals, national defense must become a public good for it to exist at all. Here we see a need for the government to provide a public good, national defense, and its relation to an externality, his neighbors protection, in that if the good weren't public, rational individuals wouldn't obtain national defense, which is certainly a good.
Another example of rational individual thought becoming a socially unacceptable condition is given by Anthony Downs. Downs looks at well-informed voting; specifically, the individual returns and costs to voting. His famous conclusion: "it is irrational for most citizens to acquire political information for purposes of voting." (Downs 4)
The consequences of a failed market, before external intervention, are that society as a whole would have too little (or none) of those goods or conditions that each individual would consider vitally important: national defense, streets free of snow and litter, a well-informed electorate, and even education itself. A major reason the federal government subsidizes education is that the benefit from a well-educated society is greater than the benefit one gets individually in the job market. Conversely, society would have too much of the goods or conditions that each individual would consider undesirable, like pollution. Obviously, society would be worse off in many ways without external intervention.
The one objection to this intervention is that most capitalistic societies are based on laissez-faire economics, which means "to leave alone". This is the belief that non-interventionism works best, and it is certainly well-founded, given both economic theory on competition (how can bureaucrats know the benefits and costs of installing a electrostatic precipitator in a smokestack?) and the current sentiment on the success of government projects.
The two most popular solutions to the problem of market failures are direct regulation and effluent fees (Varian 556). Direct regulation occurs when the government simply chooses the amount of either the public good or the externality produced. For example, mandatory education or the heavily regulated medicinal industry are two areas of direct regulation. Effluent fees are generally ways of dealing with externalities. These fees are levied by the community in accord with the amount of the externality produced by each agent. Originally meant only for pollution control (hence the name), these fees (or the converse, rebates) could be applied to the gain from a neat lawn or a rebate for conducting basic scientific research. Of these two proposals, effluent fees are superior because they are cheaper to enact and create an incentive to reduce (or increase) an externality. (Mansfield 508)
Another solution is for an agent to internalize all of these social costs. A popular example of internalizing externalities is when a paper mill that pollutes in a river and a fishery (which makes less money with high pollution) merge. This has the effect of eradicating the externality, or at least causing it to be accounted for in the pricing of the goods. "It is always rational to perform any act if its marginal return is larger than its marginal cost." (Downs 3) Before the merger, the marginal cost of producing pollution was zero. Now the merged paper mill must incur the "social" cost of producing pollution. This will cause the profit-maximizing amount of the negative externality to be reduced to a socially optimum amount. Once again private, individual costs coincide with social costs. Although this seems to be the best solution, there are several practical problems with this "internalization"; using our example, what about the other fisheries nearby? Or the millions of people that drink the water? Obviously, this solution is limited.
The final solution I would like to look at was developed by Gordon Tullock, in which we try to find the optimal size of government that will use both economies of scale and the internalization of externalities by the government. When we combine the two desired goals, we choose the size of government to be at the point where the combined costs are at a minimum. Also, Tullock looked at what size of government units individuals want. The conflict was between small government units where one can easily obtain what one wants but inefficient because of the many units that must work together, and large government units where we have efficiency but less representation. As usual, a compromise between the two is optimal.
Now we can look at ways in which the government can emulate the more efficient capitalist-market scheme. The key relationship between public goods and externalities is the distinction between social and individual optimality, and the method of deciding policy to achieve "agreed-upon ends" throughout society. This is distinct from achieving "efficiency" throughout society because efficiency is usually not the only desired outcome. For example, equity issues like minimum wage are also considered important. When we look at ways the government can mimic the free-market system, we see that if each producer is able to bargain with each consumer on the amount of the externality, we can again revert back to looking at marginal costs and marginal benefits. We will see that each consumer will compare the marginal benefit of a little cleaner air, for example, with the marginal cost paid to the producer for installing more efficient machinery. Here we have market-place bargaining for a lack of pollution and this market operates just like the market any other good.
In conclusion, I have shown that given self-interested individuals our government is necessary to provide goods that would not appear in the private sector. I have also examined the relationship between public goods and externalities and ways that economists and government officials can work together to increase social welfare by eliminating the free-rider problem.
Markets fail because it is either difficult or impossible for people to receive or produce the amount of goods that would be in accord with their valuations. These goods and services are not allocated by the desires of the participants. When this occurs, consumers may desire a good, like defense against hostile countries, but are unable to afford it. But the key here is that even if one consumer were able to afford it, the market would still fail because his neighbors would receive benefits from something that they didn't pay for. No one would have an incentive to purchase nuclear arms because one's neighbors would receive positive externalities; that is, given purely self-interested individuals, national defense must become a public good for it to exist at all. Here we see a need for the government to provide a public good, national defense, and its relation to an externality, his neighbors protection, in that if the good weren't public, rational individuals wouldn't obtain national defense, which is certainly a good.
Another example of rational individual thought becoming a socially unacceptable condition is given by Anthony Downs. Downs looks at well-informed voting; specifically, the individual returns and costs to voting. His famous conclusion: "it is irrational for most citizens to acquire political information for purposes of voting." (Downs 4)
The consequences of a failed market, before external intervention, are that society as a whole would have too little (or none) of those goods or conditions that each individual would consider vitally important: national defense, streets free of snow and litter, a well-informed electorate, and even education itself. A major reason the federal government subsidizes education is that the benefit from a well-educated society is greater than the benefit one gets individually in the job market. Conversely, society would have too much of the goods or conditions that each individual would consider undesirable, like pollution. Obviously, society would be worse off in many ways without external intervention.
The one objection to this intervention is that most capitalistic societies are based on laissez-faire economics, which means "to leave alone". This is the belief that non-interventionism works best, and it is certainly well-founded, given both economic theory on competition (how can bureaucrats know the benefits and costs of installing a electrostatic precipitator in a smokestack?) and the current sentiment on the success of government projects.
The two most popular solutions to the problem of market failures are direct regulation and effluent fees (Varian 556). Direct regulation occurs when the government simply chooses the amount of either the public good or the externality produced. For example, mandatory education or the heavily regulated medicinal industry are two areas of direct regulation. Effluent fees are generally ways of dealing with externalities. These fees are levied by the community in accord with the amount of the externality produced by each agent. Originally meant only for pollution control (hence the name), these fees (or the converse, rebates) could be applied to the gain from a neat lawn or a rebate for conducting basic scientific research. Of these two proposals, effluent fees are superior because they are cheaper to enact and create an incentive to reduce (or increase) an externality. (Mansfield 508)
Another solution is for an agent to internalize all of these social costs. A popular example of internalizing externalities is when a paper mill that pollutes in a river and a fishery (which makes less money with high pollution) merge. This has the effect of eradicating the externality, or at least causing it to be accounted for in the pricing of the goods. "It is always rational to perform any act if its marginal return is larger than its marginal cost." (Downs 3) Before the merger, the marginal cost of producing pollution was zero. Now the merged paper mill must incur the "social" cost of producing pollution. This will cause the profit-maximizing amount of the negative externality to be reduced to a socially optimum amount. Once again private, individual costs coincide with social costs. Although this seems to be the best solution, there are several practical problems with this "internalization"; using our example, what about the other fisheries nearby? Or the millions of people that drink the water? Obviously, this solution is limited.
The final solution I would like to look at was developed by Gordon Tullock, in which we try to find the optimal size of government that will use both economies of scale and the internalization of externalities by the government. When we combine the two desired goals, we choose the size of government to be at the point where the combined costs are at a minimum. Also, Tullock looked at what size of government units individuals want. The conflict was between small government units where one can easily obtain what one wants but inefficient because of the many units that must work together, and large government units where we have efficiency but less representation. As usual, a compromise between the two is optimal.
Now we can look at ways in which the government can emulate the more efficient capitalist-market scheme. The key relationship between public goods and externalities is the distinction between social and individual optimality, and the method of deciding policy to achieve "agreed-upon ends" throughout society. This is distinct from achieving "efficiency" throughout society because efficiency is usually not the only desired outcome. For example, equity issues like minimum wage are also considered important. When we look at ways the government can mimic the free-market system, we see that if each producer is able to bargain with each consumer on the amount of the externality, we can again revert back to looking at marginal costs and marginal benefits. We will see that each consumer will compare the marginal benefit of a little cleaner air, for example, with the marginal cost paid to the producer for installing more efficient machinery. Here we have market-place bargaining for a lack of pollution and this market operates just like the market any other good.
In conclusion, I have shown that given self-interested individuals our government is necessary to provide goods that would not appear in the private sector. I have also examined the relationship between public goods and externalities and ways that economists and government officials can work together to increase social welfare by eliminating the free-rider problem.
Public Goods
The United States, as well as most of the industrialized world, has a capitalistic system of allocating resources to its citizens via prices and relative scarcity. Over the last two centuries since Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations we have seen relative success in capitalistic markets where the consumer's valuations of individual goods determines price, quantity demanded and quantity supplied. One of the most important tenets in economics is that a good's price should its reflect relative scarcity, both in final products and in factor markets. "For market prices to produce an efficient allocation of resources, it is necessary that the full cost of using each resource is borne by the person or firm that uses it." (Mansfield 503) But there are also some areas in which we experience market failures- places where markets are unable to allocate goods and services to those consumers whose preferences and valuations choose them. One type of market failure occurs when byproducts of market transactions affect, either positively or negatively, parties not directly involved in that specific market. Another type occurs when as individuals we have an incentive not to pay for something that we can receive anyway. In this article, I plan to show that given purely self-interested individuals the creation of public goods via government intervention is the most effective way to control the amount of externalities that occur in the marketplace. I will also describe many ways our government can intervene more effectively.
These two types of market failures are by no means rare or unimportant. One of the chief economic functions of our government is to provide these goods and services or to create artificial incentives, usually through the enactment of laws, to change the amount of byproducts firms produce. Also, as voting constituents in a democracy, it is imperative that we choose which goods and services should be provided by the government, and how important each byproduct of the market is and how we should deal with it. According to Hobbes, even the reason mankind chose to live in a society instead of the perfectly competitive state of nature is based on people giving up their individual rights for the benefit of the group as a whole (Hobbes 17).
The first type of market failure occurs when externalities are produced during normal market operations of certain goods and services. Externalities occur when a third party is affected by the transactions of others. The externality produced is not sold or bought in a market scenario under natural conditions. We will see that it is possible for the government to artificially create a market to try to match the individual and social costs. These externalities can be either positive or negative, and they can also vary in the mode by which they occur- through production or through consumption. This matrix gives some examples (from Mansfield 483):
Production Consumption
Positive: General training for workers Maintained lawn
Negative: Pollution Envy of another's gain.
Under a perfectly competitive model, individual and social costs coincide. But when externalities are present in the actions of either agent, the social value differs from the value to the individual. For example, in a negative externality like smokestack pollution, the individual producer does not account for the marginal social cost of dirtier air into his prices. In this case, the cost of dirtier air is an externality that is not included in the price- and that creates a distortion because dirty air is a social cost that profit-maximizing firms have no incentive to decrease. From this we see that there will be more pollution if we ignore this externality than if we are able to force firms to more accurately account for these costs.
The second of these market failures is allieviated by creating a public good. A public good is a good or service that is difficult or impossible to be restricted to one paying individual or group without being provided for everyone nearby in the same amount whether or not the others pay. Public goods are usually able to be used by one person while it is still possible for another to use it at the same time. This is differentiated from the private goods that we usually identify with, where the producers or firms are able to restrict use to paying customers only. Since it is not in our individual interest to obtain these public goods, we will wait for it to be in someone else's best interest to provide the good or service, and then use it ourselves. This is the free-rider problem, and it is an example of individuals acting rationally, yet as a group they achieve irrational ends. Professor Sullivan's example of the small town of Piermont having the desire to rely on the big town of Hanover to cut its pollution is an example of this. "Thus, when benefits are indivisible, each individual is always motivated to evade his share of the cost of producing them." (Downs 4)
A good becomes a public good when we select an outside agent, usually our government, to provide the good for everyone and to have involuntary taxes levied on the consumers to pay for it. The reason we would prefer this to normal market allocation is that these goods are not in our individual interest to obtain, yet with which society as a whole is better off. Thus society as a whole will convene to decide which goods and services ought to be provided through the government. Examples of public goods include roads, parks, sidewalks, clean water and clean air.
These two types of market failures are by no means rare or unimportant. One of the chief economic functions of our government is to provide these goods and services or to create artificial incentives, usually through the enactment of laws, to change the amount of byproducts firms produce. Also, as voting constituents in a democracy, it is imperative that we choose which goods and services should be provided by the government, and how important each byproduct of the market is and how we should deal with it. According to Hobbes, even the reason mankind chose to live in a society instead of the perfectly competitive state of nature is based on people giving up their individual rights for the benefit of the group as a whole (Hobbes 17).
The first type of market failure occurs when externalities are produced during normal market operations of certain goods and services. Externalities occur when a third party is affected by the transactions of others. The externality produced is not sold or bought in a market scenario under natural conditions. We will see that it is possible for the government to artificially create a market to try to match the individual and social costs. These externalities can be either positive or negative, and they can also vary in the mode by which they occur- through production or through consumption. This matrix gives some examples (from Mansfield 483):
Production Consumption
Positive: General training for workers Maintained lawn
Negative: Pollution Envy of another's gain.
Under a perfectly competitive model, individual and social costs coincide. But when externalities are present in the actions of either agent, the social value differs from the value to the individual. For example, in a negative externality like smokestack pollution, the individual producer does not account for the marginal social cost of dirtier air into his prices. In this case, the cost of dirtier air is an externality that is not included in the price- and that creates a distortion because dirty air is a social cost that profit-maximizing firms have no incentive to decrease. From this we see that there will be more pollution if we ignore this externality than if we are able to force firms to more accurately account for these costs.
The second of these market failures is allieviated by creating a public good. A public good is a good or service that is difficult or impossible to be restricted to one paying individual or group without being provided for everyone nearby in the same amount whether or not the others pay. Public goods are usually able to be used by one person while it is still possible for another to use it at the same time. This is differentiated from the private goods that we usually identify with, where the producers or firms are able to restrict use to paying customers only. Since it is not in our individual interest to obtain these public goods, we will wait for it to be in someone else's best interest to provide the good or service, and then use it ourselves. This is the free-rider problem, and it is an example of individuals acting rationally, yet as a group they achieve irrational ends. Professor Sullivan's example of the small town of Piermont having the desire to rely on the big town of Hanover to cut its pollution is an example of this. "Thus, when benefits are indivisible, each individual is always motivated to evade his share of the cost of producing them." (Downs 4)
A good becomes a public good when we select an outside agent, usually our government, to provide the good for everyone and to have involuntary taxes levied on the consumers to pay for it. The reason we would prefer this to normal market allocation is that these goods are not in our individual interest to obtain, yet with which society as a whole is better off. Thus society as a whole will convene to decide which goods and services ought to be provided through the government. Examples of public goods include roads, parks, sidewalks, clean water and clean air.
Friday, May 23, 2008
Veggie, one year later
I have definitely lost weight over the past year. Mostly fat but definitely some muscle as well. I eat about 3 eggs a day on average, and try to drink 2-3 cups of milk per day for protein. This is helping stave off muscle loss. I take a one-a-day multivitamin, so I am confident that I’m getting my vitamins and minerals.
I have a reputation for being a nuclear reactor regarding producing heat. I literally wear T-shirts in the winter, and never wear a coat. However, over the past year, I’ve been running less warm. I feel this is a good thing, because summers used to be awful for me, where I literally did not sleep for days during a heat wave. Last summer was far more reasonable. All in all I’d say this is a good thing.
I’m also happy with knowing that I’m really saving many animals. The thought that something had to die so I can eat is pretty much the epitome of selfish, especially since nearly none of us actually kill what we eat. (I have also said that I will eat meat only if I myself kill the animal.)Lastly, I’ve noticed that my spiritual growth accelerated this year, more than any other. No sure if they are related.
One problem I’ve had is that I still don’t eat healthy enough. When you think about it, one can be a vegetarian and eat very, very poorly. My goal this year is to start eating more healthy.
All in all, I have no intention on going back, but really do need to figure out how to get more protein.
I have a reputation for being a nuclear reactor regarding producing heat. I literally wear T-shirts in the winter, and never wear a coat. However, over the past year, I’ve been running less warm. I feel this is a good thing, because summers used to be awful for me, where I literally did not sleep for days during a heat wave. Last summer was far more reasonable. All in all I’d say this is a good thing.
I’m also happy with knowing that I’m really saving many animals. The thought that something had to die so I can eat is pretty much the epitome of selfish, especially since nearly none of us actually kill what we eat. (I have also said that I will eat meat only if I myself kill the animal.)Lastly, I’ve noticed that my spiritual growth accelerated this year, more than any other. No sure if they are related.
One problem I’ve had is that I still don’t eat healthy enough. When you think about it, one can be a vegetarian and eat very, very poorly. My goal this year is to start eating more healthy.
All in all, I have no intention on going back, but really do need to figure out how to get more protein.
Saturday, May 3, 2008
Go East, Young Man
Us Westerners are a busy lot. Like hamsters on a wheel, we have energy to spare, but can often find ourselves not going far. Striving for Infinity, we push ourselves faster by building bigger engines.
Many in the East hold a different perspective. Integration of one's inner self, in actions, values, beliefs, and duties, becomes a goal and blessing. Despite apparent busyness, a focus to stop running, still the mind, and improve one's Human Alignment creates a calm within the Storm of Life. Striving for Zero, they remain moving just as fast as we, but perhaps slightly more comfortably. They go faster by building lighter cars.
No gross generalization such as set forth above is sufficiently sturdy to allow for overall comparisons. However, I do find my life's travels to be Eastward. Through a cursory (although deepening and improving) study of Hinduism, Buddhism, martial arts, and Asian culture generally, I've found the contemplative, "Self as God" belief system, coupled with explicit norms and precepts, and millenia of excellent literature, highly appealing.
The Western mindset is not without advantage. Refining and improving the Western motivational, philosophical, and even religious systems (installing a bigger engine so to speak) will be so much the more powerful upon quenching any vital thirst for balance, alignment, and serenity. This will provide even greater joy.
Many in the East hold a different perspective. Integration of one's inner self, in actions, values, beliefs, and duties, becomes a goal and blessing. Despite apparent busyness, a focus to stop running, still the mind, and improve one's Human Alignment creates a calm within the Storm of Life. Striving for Zero, they remain moving just as fast as we, but perhaps slightly more comfortably. They go faster by building lighter cars.
No gross generalization such as set forth above is sufficiently sturdy to allow for overall comparisons. However, I do find my life's travels to be Eastward. Through a cursory (although deepening and improving) study of Hinduism, Buddhism, martial arts, and Asian culture generally, I've found the contemplative, "Self as God" belief system, coupled with explicit norms and precepts, and millenia of excellent literature, highly appealing.
The Western mindset is not without advantage. Refining and improving the Western motivational, philosophical, and even religious systems (installing a bigger engine so to speak) will be so much the more powerful upon quenching any vital thirst for balance, alignment, and serenity. This will provide even greater joy.
Thursday, April 24, 2008
Love
My blog today is about love, and about hope. We are born alone and naked, and scared. As we get older, we develop connections with people which we value so highly. Then, at the end, we die alone.
When I think about the connections I’ve had with people over the years, I realize that those connections are the meaning of life. It’s incredibly important to have a life of connections, positive connections, with others. In fact, one might define one’s life around how many people have been touched, cared about, or simply positively affected, by your presence.
In a way, I’ve had a blessed life, because even at the ripe age of 38 I’ve finally learned this lesson. For example, the time I spend with my daughter is the closest I’ll ever get to heaven. We have so much fun together. I worry about her constantly, and the thought of her not being in my daily life haunts me more than the thought of my own death. Strangely, I rarely think about my own death in any other context but whether I’ll see her again. It is a wonderful feeling to transcend life. I’m nearly there. In Buddhism, liberation and enlightenment occur when one goes beyond the “real world” and instead sees the true essence of life. I believe that there are many paths to enlightenment, and no religion has a monopoly on it.
At nearly 14, she is growing up so fast, and I often wonder how things will turn out for her. She has had two wonderful and caring parents all her life, and a large extended family, and many friends as well.
I hope I can see her as much as I can in the future.
When I think about the connections I’ve had with people over the years, I realize that those connections are the meaning of life. It’s incredibly important to have a life of connections, positive connections, with others. In fact, one might define one’s life around how many people have been touched, cared about, or simply positively affected, by your presence.
In a way, I’ve had a blessed life, because even at the ripe age of 38 I’ve finally learned this lesson. For example, the time I spend with my daughter is the closest I’ll ever get to heaven. We have so much fun together. I worry about her constantly, and the thought of her not being in my daily life haunts me more than the thought of my own death. Strangely, I rarely think about my own death in any other context but whether I’ll see her again. It is a wonderful feeling to transcend life. I’m nearly there. In Buddhism, liberation and enlightenment occur when one goes beyond the “real world” and instead sees the true essence of life. I believe that there are many paths to enlightenment, and no religion has a monopoly on it.
At nearly 14, she is growing up so fast, and I often wonder how things will turn out for her. She has had two wonderful and caring parents all her life, and a large extended family, and many friends as well.
I hope I can see her as much as I can in the future.
Monday, March 17, 2008
Self as God
Last week, I took a vow of silence for 36 hours. In the Hindu religion, this is called Mauna.
In a general sense, Christianity and Judaism connect others (the Prophets, etc.) with God while Pagan religions are animistic. However, in many Eastern religions and philosophies, adherents believe that the Self pervades all, and the Self is supreme to even the gods.
Most importantly, to me, is that in such Eastern religions, one’s pursuit of Godliness involves specific activities that one can do in regular life. For example, in Buddhism and Hinduism, there the concept of meditation is a core to their spiritual growth. Meditation improves the conservation of energy, fosters self-control (sattrayana) and non-attachment, and therefore calms the mind. By creating peace within the body and the senses, one hopes to create inner peace within the soul/mind, and eventually outer peace (a la Gandhi) within the world. This alignment of one's soul, mind, body, and then outer world is to me creating heaven on earth. It is a fascinating and life-altering concept to me. It meshes with how I've always believe man should be. Here are the four main examples:
1) Brahmancharya is sexual continence. Gandhi, as you know, practiced this from about age 36 for the rest of his life.
2) Mauna is a vow of silence. Gandhi did not speak on Mondays for most of his adult life. People like Maher Baba (who heavily influenced Pete Townshend of The Who) didn't speak for nearly 45 years, and there are many people who take vows of over 10 years.
There seems to be 7 levels of silence:
a) Conquer jealousy
b) Conquer anger
c) Conquer fear
d) Conquer memory
e) Conquer reason
f) Conquer willpower
g) Conquer ego
3) Anasakyana is fasting. Over the past year, I’ve done two fasts. The first, my first, was 30 hours, and difficult (I broke it at around 2am. My reptile brain stood me up and walked me to the pizza joint). The second went better, at 40 hours, and broken normally.
4) Vanaprastha is seclusion or withdrawal from social interaction.
In a general sense, Christianity and Judaism connect others (the Prophets, etc.) with God while Pagan religions are animistic. However, in many Eastern religions and philosophies, adherents believe that the Self pervades all, and the Self is supreme to even the gods.
Most importantly, to me, is that in such Eastern religions, one’s pursuit of Godliness involves specific activities that one can do in regular life. For example, in Buddhism and Hinduism, there the concept of meditation is a core to their spiritual growth. Meditation improves the conservation of energy, fosters self-control (sattrayana) and non-attachment, and therefore calms the mind. By creating peace within the body and the senses, one hopes to create inner peace within the soul/mind, and eventually outer peace (a la Gandhi) within the world. This alignment of one's soul, mind, body, and then outer world is to me creating heaven on earth. It is a fascinating and life-altering concept to me. It meshes with how I've always believe man should be. Here are the four main examples:
1) Brahmancharya is sexual continence. Gandhi, as you know, practiced this from about age 36 for the rest of his life.
2) Mauna is a vow of silence. Gandhi did not speak on Mondays for most of his adult life. People like Maher Baba (who heavily influenced Pete Townshend of The Who) didn't speak for nearly 45 years, and there are many people who take vows of over 10 years.
There seems to be 7 levels of silence:
a) Conquer jealousy
b) Conquer anger
c) Conquer fear
d) Conquer memory
e) Conquer reason
f) Conquer willpower
g) Conquer ego
3) Anasakyana is fasting. Over the past year, I’ve done two fasts. The first, my first, was 30 hours, and difficult (I broke it at around 2am. My reptile brain stood me up and walked me to the pizza joint). The second went better, at 40 hours, and broken normally.
4) Vanaprastha is seclusion or withdrawal from social interaction.
Friday, March 14, 2008
Applying Differential Calculus in Mankind
Last entry was an explanation of how we can use the general non-mathematical concepts in calculus to learn more about life. This article is about whether humans are losing their alignment with nature.
I've wondered if humans are entering a 'derivative' phase, where we have detached from the core of things and have attached to the false appearance. Here are some examples:
Sex is for procreation, but humans do it for fun and in fact often seek to avoid procreation
Christmas is about celebrating a religious figure, but humans focus on the celebration, and not the figure
Many artificial colors, flavors, and additives are for appearance rather than nutritional improvement
We study in school to get high grades, rather than to learn
Kids wear chains and 'tough' clothes for the appearance of toughness, when there is none
Men hold automatic doors open for women
It's been said that men are more attracted to bleach blondes than actual blondes
High heels, lipstick, eye makeup (whatever that is called…mascara I think) create no advantage to those with long legs, thick lips, or big eyes
Fake breasts…gross
Cut or ‘faded’ jeans, to imply some sort of working class hero image
What’s fascinating about all this is that nature does it, too. Neoteny is nature’s way of delaying an organism’s juvenile characteristics, often well into adulthood. Often this serves the purpose of fooling potential mates. It works, and our beliefs regarding human beauty usually serve to reinforce neoteny.
What’s the point? The point is that cultural and natural factors are conspiring to create posers out of you, and out of those with whom you interact. Try to keep things real.
Friday, February 29, 2008
Integrating the Senses
For those who were lucky enough to take calculus, you just might remember that it was divided (generally) into two main branches: differential calculus and integral calculus. Differential calculus, non-mathematically, is the study of how things change when you change the underlying factors. For example, if it’s cold out, and I’m warm, putting on another shirt will make me even warmer. Differential calculus might attempt to quantify how much warmer I’d be, but we really don’t need that math now. The big point, to me, is that differential calculus is an attempt to figure out how things will change when you change the inputs. Said another way, differential calculus helps us go from something to its derivative. In this non-math sense, think of derivative as like Plato’s analogy of The Cave. As for synonyms, think “borrowed” or “copied or adapted from a more original source”. A better example might be musically, how some bands are derivatives (copies) of other bands.
Integral calculus, on the other hand, is the opposite. (This is the one with the cool ∫ symbol.) It’s the study of going back to the original source. (Here I’m leaning on the anti-derivative type of integration.) Integration is the process, in this use, of re-incorporating the part into the whole, or more accurately attempting to find the source from which the derivative was born. Reminds me of Eric Clapton’s musical journey from the pop and Top 40 of the 60’s (of which he was a part) backward in time. Mr. Clapton was, using our definition, finding the musical ancestors of what he was playing. Of course, he then famously took on more of the original ‘source’ music. But for the time being, think of this integration as looking upstream at the causes of the effects.
OK, now that created these two concepts, let’s move on to the senses. Most of us use our sense, and trust them. They are very reliable. However, there are times when our senses are either not enough, or simply fooling us. I see this most in my martial training. A friend said once to me “Your eyes only see the shadows of the art; to see the art itself is to feel it.” – Thanks Josh! If you watch most martial arts, it’s often incredibly hard to actually know what you are seeing and hearing. This is why, in my opinion, martial art videos (and photography) can be interesting, but rarely didactic. It would be like opening a book and trying to hear it. The best way to experience martial arts is to feel them in action; integrate your senses!
This concept goes further, in most of life. For example, one of the most difficult aspects of leadership is applying the theoretical to reality via execution. Being in the moment, being the doer, and being the prime mover are similar concepts for something that is very difficult to describe. That said, autobiographies exist almost purely as an attempt to give the reader a feel for what “it was really like”. This is incredibly difficult. The old saying “never judge someone until you’ve walked a mile in their moccasins” is saying a similar thing. The aspects of a person that you see or read about are truly derivatives of myriad experiences, thoughts, and understandings that you are distinctly not privy to, and they can make all the difference in understanding.
This doesn’t just apply to leaders in the traditional sense. Each of us is a leader in our own lives. Some lead a family, others lead at work, some are leaders of themselves (and that’s plenty enough). In other parts of life, we are followers. Perhaps you follow a teacher, a spouse, a parent, or a boss. The ability to go from leader to follower and back seamlessly is very important.
So, what’s the point? The main point is to attempt to capture the essence of whatever you are doing. Understand why and how (the highest level questions) of all that you are and do.
Integral calculus, on the other hand, is the opposite. (This is the one with the cool ∫ symbol.) It’s the study of going back to the original source. (Here I’m leaning on the anti-derivative type of integration.) Integration is the process, in this use, of re-incorporating the part into the whole, or more accurately attempting to find the source from which the derivative was born. Reminds me of Eric Clapton’s musical journey from the pop and Top 40 of the 60’s (of which he was a part) backward in time. Mr. Clapton was, using our definition, finding the musical ancestors of what he was playing. Of course, he then famously took on more of the original ‘source’ music. But for the time being, think of this integration as looking upstream at the causes of the effects.
OK, now that created these two concepts, let’s move on to the senses. Most of us use our sense, and trust them. They are very reliable. However, there are times when our senses are either not enough, or simply fooling us. I see this most in my martial training. A friend said once to me “Your eyes only see the shadows of the art; to see the art itself is to feel it.” – Thanks Josh! If you watch most martial arts, it’s often incredibly hard to actually know what you are seeing and hearing. This is why, in my opinion, martial art videos (and photography) can be interesting, but rarely didactic. It would be like opening a book and trying to hear it. The best way to experience martial arts is to feel them in action; integrate your senses!
This concept goes further, in most of life. For example, one of the most difficult aspects of leadership is applying the theoretical to reality via execution. Being in the moment, being the doer, and being the prime mover are similar concepts for something that is very difficult to describe. That said, autobiographies exist almost purely as an attempt to give the reader a feel for what “it was really like”. This is incredibly difficult. The old saying “never judge someone until you’ve walked a mile in their moccasins” is saying a similar thing. The aspects of a person that you see or read about are truly derivatives of myriad experiences, thoughts, and understandings that you are distinctly not privy to, and they can make all the difference in understanding.
This doesn’t just apply to leaders in the traditional sense. Each of us is a leader in our own lives. Some lead a family, others lead at work, some are leaders of themselves (and that’s plenty enough). In other parts of life, we are followers. Perhaps you follow a teacher, a spouse, a parent, or a boss. The ability to go from leader to follower and back seamlessly is very important.
So, what’s the point? The main point is to attempt to capture the essence of whatever you are doing. Understand why and how (the highest level questions) of all that you are and do.
Friday, February 15, 2008
Carl Schmitt
Carl Schmitt was a 20th century German philosopher. His most famous work, The Concept of the Political, was originally published in 1927. In this work Schmitt asserts that the state is a manifestation of the political realm of life. Importantly, Schmitt argues that the need for the state to govern the political is due to the existence of political enemies. Schmitt describes friends, foes, and enemies within the political realm and differentiates such terms from their personal analogues. In fact, Schmitt defines the term political as the distinctions among political friends, political foes, and political enemies. Much is made of Schmitt’s opposition to liberalism as well.
Importantly, Schmitt sees enemies as having the potential of being wonderful, beautiful, and quite superior, and yet enemies nonetheless.
Schmitt ran into some issues during his career, due to his membership in the Nazi Party, but his philosophical constructs were rigorous and form the basis for much of today's international political economy, and war.
What would be interesting, and I haven’t yet found, is an analysis the differences between friend and foe in both the internal and external realms. For example, Schmitt was a Nazi for a while, but obviously the German Jews were, well, German, so there were intra-national enemies and foes, which in fact often took precedence of external enemies, such as the Soviets. This is reminiscent to internal struggles within companies, which can often overshadow the very real threat from a company’s competitors. As a timely issue, this is also something happening in the Republican Party. For many within the party who would call themselves paleoconservatives, there is a really attraction to laying siege to the party, essentially killing any chance for a GOP victory in '08. In this case, again, internal enemy-hate trumps external enemy-hate, and you have the paradox of Rightists supporting Sens. Clinton or Obama.
Importantly, Schmitt sees enemies as having the potential of being wonderful, beautiful, and quite superior, and yet enemies nonetheless.
Schmitt ran into some issues during his career, due to his membership in the Nazi Party, but his philosophical constructs were rigorous and form the basis for much of today's international political economy, and war.
What would be interesting, and I haven’t yet found, is an analysis the differences between friend and foe in both the internal and external realms. For example, Schmitt was a Nazi for a while, but obviously the German Jews were, well, German, so there were intra-national enemies and foes, which in fact often took precedence of external enemies, such as the Soviets. This is reminiscent to internal struggles within companies, which can often overshadow the very real threat from a company’s competitors. As a timely issue, this is also something happening in the Republican Party. For many within the party who would call themselves paleoconservatives, there is a really attraction to laying siege to the party, essentially killing any chance for a GOP victory in '08. In this case, again, internal enemy-hate trumps external enemy-hate, and you have the paradox of Rightists supporting Sens. Clinton or Obama.
Friday, February 8, 2008
Cold Showers!
Last May, I started taking only cold showers. At first it was quite difficult, and it took about a month to work up to 3.5 minutes, which is more than sufficient. (I have no idea how people can take 10 to 20 minute showers. Showers use about 7-10 gallons of water per minute. Tens of millions of people do not have access to safe water, so conserve it!) Now, in the middle of winter, my showers last about 3 minutes. In New York City, the water temperature in January and February averages 38 degrees, and I assume the water temperature in the shower is only slightly higher.
After learning of my cold shower routine, most people ask me “why?” and I can understand. There are many benefits to taking cold showers:
• Cold showers really cool your body off. After even a 2 minute cold shower, you will feel cool and calm for at least an hour, even in the dog days of summer.
• Cold showers feel great, after the first 20-30 seconds. It’s a euphoric, healthy feeling probably because of the blood circulating toward the heart, and then back out again after the shower.
• It keeps the length of showers down, saving time, money, and the environment.
• You actually get used to it, and it becomes easier and easier. Even after only a week, it’s really nothing special.
• Cold showers increase mental toughness, according to a study at the University of Hull (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/humber/4172097.stm).
• Immersion in cold water, according to German doctors at Herzog-Julius Hospital, reduces chest infections and seems to help patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Some doctors also recommend ice-water treatment for those with anxiety. (http://www.sqjh.me.uk/squaddiejh/cold.htm)
I can certainly warrant that the first minute or so of a cold shower is uncomfortable. But one you break though that moment and embrace it, one becomes quite liberated and begins to enjoy it. Start slow!
After learning of my cold shower routine, most people ask me “why?” and I can understand. There are many benefits to taking cold showers:
• Cold showers really cool your body off. After even a 2 minute cold shower, you will feel cool and calm for at least an hour, even in the dog days of summer.
• Cold showers feel great, after the first 20-30 seconds. It’s a euphoric, healthy feeling probably because of the blood circulating toward the heart, and then back out again after the shower.
• It keeps the length of showers down, saving time, money, and the environment.
• You actually get used to it, and it becomes easier and easier. Even after only a week, it’s really nothing special.
• Cold showers increase mental toughness, according to a study at the University of Hull (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/humber/4172097.stm).
• Immersion in cold water, according to German doctors at Herzog-Julius Hospital, reduces chest infections and seems to help patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Some doctors also recommend ice-water treatment for those with anxiety. (http://www.sqjh.me.uk/squaddiejh/cold.htm)
I can certainly warrant that the first minute or so of a cold shower is uncomfortable. But one you break though that moment and embrace it, one becomes quite liberated and begins to enjoy it. Start slow!
Wednesday, January 23, 2008
Evolution vs. Revolution
Change of any sort seems to come in two different ways, at least when examined from a distance. The first way could be called “evolutionary”. Evolution, to this non-scientist, is the process by which little changes eventually create large changes. Think Grand Canyon, or the Japanese approach to product development. This is the process of going from a 4 to a 4.1 to a 4.2 to a 4.3 to a … to a 9. The second way, “Revolution”, is in theory an immediate leap to a better place. It is going from a 4 to a 9 with no intermediary steps. Think 1917 Russia, quantum mechanics, the Internet, or Black Sabbath’s first album.
Much like the Chinese concept of Yin/Yang, or the Japanese In/Yo, there’s a little revolution in all evolution, and there’s certainly a little evolution in every revolution. The difference is one of perspective and distance. But generally, we can say that some changes occur much, much faster than others. Over the course of mankind, it’s pretty obvious (to me) that we are in a perpetual state of revolution, at least in comparison to our first couple hundred thousand years. Or is it that we remain in a perpetual state of accelerated evolution?
The evolution/revolution dichotomy is really crucial to any type of planning, whether it’s personal or professional. When comparing (and contrasting) two different things, people inevitably consider “which is better?” or “which one am I?” There are obviously benefits and costs to both, depending on the desired change. When you are thinking about your goals, consider how much evolution and revolution would be optimal.
One of the best ways to assess your plans for a desired change is to ask “is the ultimate goal dividable?” What I mean by this relates to the trek from where you are at, to where you want to go. For example, if your goal is to go to Japan, getting to China is certainly a good start, but still not there yet. Saving the money for the plane is also a way to get closer to achieving the goal.
The evolution/revolution distinction is vital to planning and goal setting.
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